Jon Benjamin

Author: Jon Benjamin

  • From Nihilism to Self-Knowing: Art’s Evolving Quest for Meaning

    From Nihilism to Self-Knowing: Art’s Evolving Quest for Meaning

    The 19th-century German philosopher, Friedrich Nietzsche, expressed concern that the erosion of religious values in the modern era would lead to a loss of meaning, a phenomenon he referred to as nihilism. This essay will explore how art has grappled with this loss of meaning from Modernism’s application of hermeneutics to Postmodernism’s application of mechanical reproduction, criticism, and fragmentation. This shift, I will argue, ultimately paved the way for a contemporary approach to art as an inherently singular quest for self-knowledge that I contend is the rediscovery of this lost meaning. Drawing on the insights of Fredric Jameson, Barbara Kruger, and Ana Mendieta, I will demonstrate how this evolving artistic dialogue culminates in the works of Greer Lankton.

    Fredric Jameson was an American literary critic and philosopher who compares Vincent Van Gogh’s high modernist painting titled Peasant Shoes (See Figure 1) with Andy Warhol’s postmodern silkscreen titled Diamond Dust Shoes (See Figure 2) in his essay titled ‘Postmodernism: or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism’ (Jameson, 1046). Jameson’s thesis is that capitalism has caused a shift from depth and expression in modern art to the impersonal and free-floating qualities of postmodern art. Jameson sets the stage with the following description, “…Van Gogh…grasped simply as the whole object world of agricultural misery, of stark rural poverty, and the whole rudimentary human world of backbreaking peasant toil, a world reduced to its most brutal and menaced, primitive and marginalized state” (Jameson, 1046). By describing Van Gogh’s painting this way, Jameson illustrates how modernism uses hermeneutics to establish meaning in works of art.

    Figure 1. Peasant Shoes. Vincent van Gogh 1886 oil on canvas.
    Figure 2. Diamond Dust Shoes, Any Warhol. 1980 Canvas

    Hermeneutics is a term that refers to a branch of knowledge that focuses on interpreting and decoding art and literature. Hermeneutics significantly influenced the interpretation of religious painting in the Baroque period and the natural themes of the Romantic era. I suggest that hermeneutics in modern art is merely a vestige from the previous eras.

    My point is further validated when one discovers that Van Gogh bought the shoes in a flea market, then walked through the mud in them until they were filthy enough to look interesting (Van Gogh Museum). Jameson goes on to say that Peasant Shoes is a “Utopian Gesture” created by Van Gogh to illustrate the unstable conflicts that were forming as a result of early capitalism. Here Jameson exaggerates his point, “a drab peasant object world into the most glorious materialization of pure color in oil paint is to be seen as a Utopian gesture… part of some new division of labor in the body of capital, some new fragmentation of the emergent sensorium which replicates the specializations and divisions of capitalist life…” (Jameson, 1047). To summarize, Jameson is suggesting that Van Gogh’s Peasant Shoes creates a utopian message by making the peasant shoes beautiful in response to the horrible drudgery that capitalism inflicts on the poor. This is an illustration of modernisms use of hermeneutics, where  Jameson attempts to decode the hidden message in Peasant Shoes to reveal concerning the ills of Capitalism.

    Jameson furthers his argument by suggesting modern art is more meaningful due the artists use paint and canvas, as he explains, “the renewed materiality of the work, on the transformation of one form of materiality – the earth itself and its paths and physical objects – into that other materiality of oil paint affirmed and foregrounded in its own right and for its own visual pleasures….” (Jameson, 1047). Here he highlights this handmade approach of oil on canvas in an effort to contrast with the mechanical reproduction used in postmodern art. By applying oil to canvas, Van Gogh is making a physical connection with his art, in turn creating a singular and original work. In contrast, Andy Warhol coverts a photograph into a silkscreen print so that multiple images could be made. This confirms Jameson’s thesis that the loss of the artists hand and individual uniqueness of the artwork, further diminishing it’s meaning and emotional value. He suggests that the elements that connect Warhol’s painting to a historical time and place and the artist’s hand have been severed, when he refers to Diamond Dust Shoes as merely fetish, as he declares, “On the level of the content, we have to do with what are now far more clearly fetishes…in the Marxian sense” (Jameson, 1047). Here Jameson is referring to Marx’s concept of commodity fetishism, meaning the image has lost its value associated with the labor of its creation, reducing it to an object that magically appeared with a price tag.

    To further this point, Jameson describes Postmodernism’s loss of the artist monad. The term monad is derived from the Greek word monas meaning “a unit”. Jameson is using it to refer to the artist as a singular self-contained genius, when he claims, “The end of the bourgeois ego or monad no doubt brings with it the end…(of) every other kind of feeling as well, since there is no longer a self-present to do the feeling” (Jameson, 1051). Here Jameson is clarifying how the modernist concept of the individual artist monad, is being erased by the postmodern practice of repurposing and recontextualizing materials that blur the authorship as well as the artist hand in the creation of art.

    This is where Jameson and I disagree. I proport that Warhol is attempting to create works of art for reasons that are not that dissimilar to Van Gogh’s. Both artists, in my opinion, are searching for meaning inside the culture and time where the live. Both artists are untethered from religion and as seen in the baroque or by nature depicted by romanticism, therefor they are free to search for meaning in their immediate experience of their surroundings. Which for Warhol, who was employed as a commercial illustrator creating record album covers and fashion magazines. Warhol is revealing to us the world which he inhabits. I agree with Jameson’s assessment of the ill effect’s capitalism has on art, but I suggest that both the art of modernism and postmodernism are attempting to address nihilism and the effects of capitalism, by searching for new meaning that will eventually lead to richer soil.

    Barbara Kruger is an American conceptual artist and Graphic Designer who may be most famous for her 1989 work, Untitled (Your body is a battleground) (See figure 3). As Graphic Designer for Mademoiselle magazine, Barbara possessed firsthand knowledge of the world of advertising and capitalism. Later she began to create artwork that was influenced by her graphic design in an effort to criticize the negative effects of late capitalism. Kruger might disagree with Jameson by suggesting how the very act of reusing images from Capitalist culture can provide an opportunity for viewers to detach from the emotional or hermeneutic depth of the art and focus on the art’s critical message. In a statement published in Screen magazine in 1982, Kruger discusses the role of art in criticizing the establishment, “As parody frees ceremony from ritual, so its ‘making alike’ allows for a disengaged (or supposedly) distanced reading” (Kruger, 1042). In other words, since artworks like her (Untitled) Your Body is a Battleground and Warhol’s Diamond Dust Shoes, lack the depth from the removal of the artist as monad, this can become an asset, that the artist utilizes to create a more potent critique of capitalism.

    Figure 3. Untitled (Your body is a battleground) Barbara Kruger. 1989photographic silkscreen on vinyl

    In some ways Kruger agrees with Jameson’s critique that an overreliance on the recontextualizing of recognizable images may cause a message may be misinterpreted when the imagery is too recognizable. Therefore, Kruger suggests that artist should be more direct and clearer with their message, as she says, “Perhaps the problem is one of implicitness, that what is needed is, again, an alternation, not only called ‘from primary to secondary’, but from implicit to explicit, from inference to declaration” (Kruger, 1042). In other words, Kruger is encouraging postmodern artists to be more intentional in their criticism.

    This quest to find meaning from modernism to postmodernism leads us to Ana Mendieta, a 20th century Cuban-American artist who delivered a speech titled “Art and Politics” at the New Museum of Contemporary Art in 1982. I believe Mendieta addresses both Jameson and Kruger’s concern about the lack of depth and integrity in postmodern art, in her opening remarks, “The question of integrity in aesthetics is rather a mind-boggling question for me, because I am an artist who feels that art is first of all a matter of vocation…I make the art I make because it’s the only kind I can make. I have no choice” (Mendieta, 1064). If what Mendieta says is true, then the question of depth and integrity in art is simply a matter of personal honesty. According to Mendieta, each artist must ask themselves what their intentions are, why are they making art? Mendieta answers this question with a quote from the Spanish philosopher Ortega y Gasset, who said, “To be a hero, to be heroic, is to be oneself” (Mendieta, 1064).

    Mendieta clarifies her point with the following response, “It is only with a real and long enough awakening that a person becomes present to himself, and it is only with this presence that a person begins to live like a human being” (Mendieta, 1064).  She continues, “To know oneself is to know the world, and it is also paradoxically a form of exile from the world. I know that it is this presence of myself, this self-knowledge which causes me to dialogue with the world around me by making art” (Mendieta, 1064). Here she suggests the act of pursuing self-knowledge is a singular phenomenon that breaks one of the tendencies to assimilate with the universals established by the dominant culture. It’s this very attempt at embracing our individual uniqueness that we resist the dominant power structure.

    This is where Mendieta would disagree with Jameson. Here Jameson summarizes his thesis, “the liberation, in contemporary society, from the…centered subject may also mean… a liberation from every other kind of feeling as well, since there is no longer a self, present to do the feeling” (Jameson, 1051) Here Jameson is suggesting the monad or artist genius, is absent from postmodern art, therefore the depth and emotion are also absent. He concludes with the following, “This is not to say that the cultural products of the postmodern era are utterly devoid of feeling, but rather that such feelings – which it may be better and more accurate to call ‘intensities’ – are now free-floating and impersonal” (Jameson, 1051). Mendieta’s model for the artist is the opposite of Jameson’s monad. Instead, it is the artist’s pursuit of self-knowledge that becomes a profound, singular act of resistance against hegemonies. The artist is not a powerful leader or genius; rather, they enter into the flow of the universe, revealing its secrets, as Mendieta plainly asserts, “To know oneself is to know the world” (Mendieta, 1065). Mendieta concludes her speech with the following statement: “the greatest comfort that great works of art give to me is not only my experience of them, but also the fact that they were created and that they exist…Hard times are coming, but I believe we who are artists will continue making our work. We will be ignored but we will be here” (Mendieta, 1065). Mendieta’s proclamation that, “we will be ignored” is the ultimate resistance to the ruling class. To be ignored is almost proof that your work cannot be commodified or assimilated, since the capitalist machine only wants what it can use to further its own exploits. Here Mendieta explains, “the reactionary class, pushes to paralyze the social development of man in an effort to have all society identify with, and serve their own interests. They banalize, mix, distort, and simplify life. They have no use for anything pure or real” (Medieta, 1065). In other words, honest, singular works of art are more pure and real, therefor impossible to simplify, quantify and commodify.

    Greer Lankton was an American postmodern artist who I believe embodies Mendieta’s words. Greer’s largest work titled It’s All About ME, Not You (See Figure 4) is part of the permanent collection at the Mattress Factory in Pittsburgh, PA. This life size recreation of Lankton’s apartment is complete with examples of her famous doll art that has been a large body of her work. The recreated apartment is completely enclosed, viewers can only look in through a series of windows, creating a life-sized voyeuristic diorama. The scene is simultaneously intimate, inviting and terrifying. Lankton’s dolls are partially an exploration of her own body through gender confirmation surgery and her struggles with drug addiction and anorexia. In life, Greer’s dolls were ever changing. They would gain and lose weight, become pregnant and undergo surgery. Greer’s work perfectly exemplifies Mendieta’s declaration, “It is only with a real and long enough awakening that a person becomes present to himself, and… begins to live like a human being” (Mendieta, 1064). Greer’s profound vulnerability provides a window that allows viewers to peer deep within her world of beauty and suffering. It is here that one can see the greater world at large, confirming Mendieta’s statement, “To know oneself is to know the world” (Mendieta, 1065). Greer gives us her world, and in turn we see the world with heightened clarity.

    Figure 4. It’s All About ME Not You. Lankton, Greer. Multi-media, Mattress Factory. 1996

    In conclusion, I have described modernism’s response to nihilism through hermeneutics and postmodernism use of mechanical, irony, and criticism. I have argued that both of these art movements in their search for meaning have led to an approach to art that is an inherently singular quest for self-knowing. By examining literature by Ana Mendieta, Fredric Jameson, and Barbara Kruger, I have argued that this journey, from the loss of meaning to the discovery of it, has culminated in the works of Greer Lankton. In the words of Ana Mendieta: “It is only with a real and long enough awakening that a person becomes present to himself, and it is only with this presence that a person begins to live like a human being” (Mendieta, 1064).

    Works Cited

    Kruger, Barbara. “Barbara Kruger.” Barbara Kruger – Bio | The Broad, www.thebroad.org/art/barbara-kruger. Accessed 2 June 2025.

    Kruger, Barbara from “‘Taking’ Pictures” Art in Theory 1900-2000, second ed., Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA, 2003, pp. 141-144.

    Lankton, Greer. “It’s All about Me, Not You.” Mattress Factory, 20 May 2024, mattress.org/exhibition/its-all-about-me-not-you/.

    Jameson, Frederic. from “The Deconstruction of Expression” Art in Theory 1900-2000, second ed., Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA, 2003, pp. 141-144.

    Mendieta, Ana. from “Art and Politics” Art in Theory 1900-2000, second ed., Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA, 2003, pp. 141-144.Van Gogh Museum “Vincent van Gogh – Shoes.” www.vangoghmuseum.nl/en/collection/s0011v1962. Accessed 1 June 2025

  • Accompaniment or Solidarity in Art: How the Faculties of Intellect and Intuition Provide Differing Forms of Human Connection Through Art

    Accompaniment or Solidarity in Art: How the Faculties of Intellect and Intuition Provide Differing Forms of Human Connection Through Art

    Beyond mere visual communication, art unites and connects us through solidarity and accompaniment. The concept of “company,” after all, stems from the Latin cum panis, “to share bread”. Art can be like a nourishing piece of bread that is shared. This bread can be designed and manufactured, trucked out to thousands of grocery stores. Or is can be handmade for a single friend. Both loaves of bread are nourishing, but I contend that the handmade loaf may have a more potent effect on the individual with whom it was shared. This is not to say we should only eat handmade bread, I’m merely suggesting there is a spectrum of different between the two. This paper will draw upon the insights of Henri Bergson, who posited that art emerges from two distinct faculties—intuition, responsible for its initial conception, and intellect, which shapes its final expression. I contend that when the artistic process leans more heavily on intuition than intellect, it fosters a more authentic and potent expression, ultimately serving as conduit for human accompaniment. Conversely, artworks that prioritize the faculty of intellect may provide a conduit for human solidarity that may have a more diluted effect on the viewer. This argument will be substantiated by examining the writings of Vladimir Lenin and Benedetto Croce.

    I will first provide my definitions for solidarity and accompaniment. Let us consider solidarity as an external force that unites humans through collective actions surrounding a cause or ideology. Accompaniment, on the other hand, springs from an internal source that unites people through authentic personal connections. In this essay I will explore public and personal artworks to elucidate the difference in their conception and expression based on their incorporation of allegory, utility and morals or lack thereof.

    Henri Bergson was a twentieth-century philosopher who posited that human consciousness is composed of the following faculties: instinct, intellect, and intuition. In his book, Creative Evolution, Bergson describes these faculties as products of evolution. Instinct, for Bergson, is the most primordial of the three. It serves as an immediate and unthinking response to the world, helping creatures to survive and propagate. Instinct, according to Bergson, is directly connected to the flow of life, or as he terms it, the Élan Vital (Bergson, 141). Bergson suggests that the highest faculty is intuition. He states, “by intuition I mean instinct that has become disinterested, self-conscious, capable of reflecting upon its object and of enlarging it indefinitely” (Bergson, 142). Here, Bergson describes intuition as a developed form of instinct that is connected to the underlying flow of life, but it is more than simply reactive; it is self-conscious, empathetic, and introspective.

    The intellect, on the other hand, evolved to analyze and manipulate matter. Bergson clarifies, “Intelligence, by means of science, which is its work, will deliver up to us more and more completely the secret of physical operations.” In other words, the intellect is analytical. Bergson goes on to say, “the intellect is characterized by the unlimited power of decomposing according to any law and of recomposing into any system” (Bergson, 141), indicating the intellect’s ability to give form to ideas. (See figure 1)

    Figure 1

    Bergson goes on to explain that the three faculties form an interdependent system. He notes, “Without intelligence intuition would have remained in the form of instinct, riveted to the special object of its practical interest, and turned outward by it into movements of locomotion” (Bergson, 142). Although these three faculties work together, Bergson posits that it is only intuition that truly grasps duration, or lived time, and the creative force of the Élan Vital. As Bergson explains, “Then, by the sympathetic communication which it establishes between us and the rest of the living, by the expansion of our consciousness which it brings about, it introduces us into life’s own domain, which is reciprocal interpenetration, endlessly continued creation.” To put it another way, by connecting with our intuition, we can grasp the essence of all life.

    Bergson further develops this concept by suggesting that the artist, by accessing their intuition, dissolves the subject-object divide. He states, “This intention is just what the artist tries to regain, in placing himself back within the object by a kind of sympathy, in breaking down, by an effort of intuition, the barrier that space puts up between him and his model” (Bergson, 142). If intuition taps into the flow of life’s vital force, then one can suggest that this may act as a source of empathy between subjects, as well as between subjects and objects. If this is true, then one can also posit that if an artist accesses their intuition, they may access a common emotion and reveal aspects of the Élan Vital in the art they produce.

    Bergson suggests that the faculty of the intellect will be activated in the creation of a work of art, since the manipulation of matter falls under its purview. As he states, “On the one hand, indeed, if intelligence is charged with matter and instinct with life, we must squeeze them both in order to get the double essence from them…” (Bergson, 142). Therefore, while intelligence is used to form the work of art, but it is through intuition—a fuller understanding of the world and one’s place within it—that the premise for the creation of art is inspired. One might argue that artwork created from a deeper form of intuition could elicit more empathy from the viewer than one created with a greater reliance on the faculty of the intellect. Bergson illustrates this idea, noting that the intellect “…goes all round life, taking from outside the greatest possible number of views of it, drawing it into itself instead of entering into it. But it is to the very inwardness of life that intuition leads us…” (Bergson, 142). This quote illustrates that the intellect collects information from the outside, while intuition conceives of ideas internally.

    To clarify this point further I will turn to the 20th-century Italian philosopher, Benedetto Croce who posited that art is fundamentally intuition. Croce clarifies this statement with the following explanation: “The artist produces an image or picture. The person who enjoys art turns his eyes in the direction which the artist has pointed out to him, peers through the hole which has been opened for him, and reproduces in himself the artist’s image” (Croce, 102). One can interpret this statement as inferring that the practice of art is inherently empathetic and a conduit for human accompaniment.

    Benedetto Croce believed that art is conceived by the faculty of intuition. Intuition, for Croce, conceives of pure art that has no utility, morals, or allegory. Art conceived from intuition is, according to Croce, entirely symbolic, as he writes: “art is symbol…that is, all significant. But symbol of what? Signifying what? Intuition is truly artistic… only when it has a vital principle which animates it and makes for its complete unity” (Croce, 107). In other words, the idea and the image, conceived in the faculty of intuition, are fused and inseparable. According to Croce, it’s like sugar dissolved in water—no longer two separate elements, but one inseparable solution. If an artist created a sculpture and described its meaning in an artist’s statement, Croce would argue the statement does not apply to the art’s true nature. This theory applies to both the creation and observation of art. If an artist conceives of a work of art with morals, utility, or allegory, the true nature of the artwork’s conception may be obscured. Similarly, if one is observing a work of art, Croce would say that it should be done with disinterest and detachment to glean its full effect.

    Now that I have established the relationship between the intellect and intuition and how these faculties relate to the conception and creation of art, I would like to provide an illustration of art created under the predominant direction of the intellect. In 1905, Vladimir Lenin published an essay titled “Party Organization and Party Literature,” which clearly dictates what art should become under the supervision and control of the new Social-Democratic government. Lenin stated that artists should have creative freedom, as long as their art served the proletariat. He wrote, “We want to establish, and we shall establish, a free press, free not simply from the police, but also from capital, from careerism, and what is more, free from bourgeois-anarchist individualism” (Lenin, 139). This contradictory statement was a reaction to the negative effects that bourgeois capitalism had had on the people of Russia and Europe. Lenin had good intentions; he wanted to avoid the unfair effects caused by the aristocracy and capitalism. What Lenin inspired was a new art form dedicated to the service of the people, rather than the individual. This new art form for the proletariat later became known as Russian Constructivism, which included simple geometric forms, photomontage, sans-serif typography, and a predominant use of the colors red and black. In the form of posters, Russian Constructivism possessed a clear utility, for which its purpose was to create pride and solidarity among the proletariat to support what would become the communist government.

    Despite the limitations Lenin placed on art, he still understood the importance of creative freedom in the development of successful and engaging works of art and literature. As he states, “Everyone is free to write and say whatever he likes, without any restrictions. But every voluntary association (including the party) is also free to expel members who use the name of the party to advocate anti-party views” (Lenin, 139). This creativity, though limited to the creation of artwork serving the proletariat, did indeed provide enough room for innovation, as evidenced by the following El Lissitzky’s posters, Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge (See figure 4) and the poster for the Russian exhibition in Zurch (See figure 5). Both posters reveal the creative license that Lenin encouraged in his letter. Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge displays an earlier abstract style of Constructivism that inspired later movements such as De Stijl and Suprematism. Lissitzky’s exhibition poster is also an excellent example of early surrealism.

    Figure 4. El Lissitzky, Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge, 1919–1920. Lithographic Bolshevik propaganda poster.
    Figure 5. El Lissitzky, USSR Russische Ausstellung, 1929. Gravure. 49 x 35 1/4″

    Despite their creativity, both of these posters arguably incorporate allegory and utility, two aspects that Croce considers negations of what true art is. The Red Wedge is a propaganda poster meant to inspire and unify the Red Bolsheviks to fight against the White anti-Bolshevik coalition. The poster allegorically depicts a battle where the Bolsheviks, represented by the red triangle, disrupt and penetrate the coalition, represented in black. The two overlapping figures in Lissitzky’s exhibition poster are surrealist in nature and are meant to convey an allegorical message about gender equality under the Soviet Socialist Republics. I argue that both of these posters were effective tools in creating solidarity among the proletariat. However, Croce would clarify that their true artistic form has been diminished and obscured by their purpose and intelligent design.

    Two clear illustrations of these opposing phenomena can be found in the 1st-century Roman Ara Pacis Augustae (See figure 6) and Louise Nevelson’s wood sculpture titled Mrs. M’s Palace from 1977 (See Figure 7). Both are architectural sculptures of similar size and shape, but their similarities end there.

    Figure 6. Ara Pacis Augustae (Latin, “Altar of Augustan Peace”; commonly shortened to Ara Pacis). an altar in Rome dedicated to Pax, the Roman goddess of Peace. Museum of the Ara Pacis, Rome
    Figure 7. Mrs. N’s Palace. Louise Nevelson, 1899–1988, New York. Painted wood, mirror. 11 ft. 8 in. × 19 ft. 11 in. × 15 ft.

    The Ara Pacis Augustae, or Altar of Augustan Peace, was built in 6 CE to commemorate Augustus’s victories in Spain and Gaul. The word “peace” in the title refers to Pax Romana, or Roman Peace, won by conquest and maintained by control. The structure is designed to be a sacrificial altar where priests would slaughter animals as offerings to Pax, the Goddess of Peace. The structure is built entirely of marble, complete with carved reliefs and faux columns. The exterior reliefs include plant life on the lower registers, with scenes from a procession that features Augustus, his family, and local dignitaries on the side upper registers (ArcheoRoma). The Ara Pacis was arguably designed with predominant leanings within the faculty of intelligence. The structure includes both utility as a sacrificial altar, and each of the reliefs are allegorical in nature. The artist who designed Ara Pacis undoubtedly accessed their intuition while planning and creating the work, but a piece such as this would demand a purposeful plan conceived in the faculty of intelligence. According to Croce, “Thus, physical facts, by their internal logic and by common consent, make themselves known not as something truly real, but as a construction of our intellect for purposes of science” (Croce, 103). The Ara Pacis functions as a device that undoubtably created unity and solidarity among Roman citizens. Ceremonies conducted at the altar would bring people together to celebrate and pray for continued Pax Romana. This is a form of human connection that comes from the outside in. As a work of art, the altar creates unity that is formed from the intellect; therefore, it has a less authentic and potent effect on the individual participants of the ceremony.

    On the other hand, Louise Nevelson’s Mrs. N’s Palace seems to have been conceived out of pure intuition. Louise typically provides only broad and vague descriptions of her work. When asked why she chose the color black, in an interview with The Metropolitan Museum of Art, she said, “”When I fell in love with black, it contained all color. It wasn’t a negation of color. It was an acceptance” (Solaini). Answering the interviewer’s question, she offered little that would aid in a deeper hermeneutic understanding of her work. Critics and art enthusiasts have made connections between her titles, her process, and her earlier works in attempts to decode her intended meaning.

    The greater body of Nevelson’s work is composed of found objects, typically wood and often found discarded in various places around New York City. The pieces are frequently assembled and arranged in wooden boxes and are always unified by being painted a single color, typically white, black, or gold. The title “Mrs. N’s Palace” alludes to the possibility of “N” representing Mrs. Nevelson herself, but the use of only the initial “N” lacks certainty.

    In a video produced by The Metropolitan Museum of Art one can see Nevelson working in her studio. She begins with loose contour drawings and appears to be drawing with little conscious thought, replacing sheets of paper and starting anew, over and over again. Once she is ready to build a sculpture, she directs her assistants to assemble the pieces with drills and nails. Little or no pre-planning appears to take place, even though she did execute a number of contour renderings. She makes decisions and changes her mind in real time. Her process seems to be entirely driven by feeling and intuiting. In an interview with the Met, she described the process as “psychic labor pains” (Met), indicating that the creation spawns from a deep and formless recesses of her mind.

    Nevelson’s conception resides almost entirely within the faculty of intuition. I argue that her resulting works of art provides a more potent and authentic encounter for viewers who are open to receiving the message, as compared to works of art, such as the Ara Pacis, that are conceived predominantly through the intellect. As Nevelson stated in an interview with The Met, “The only reality that I recognize is my reality through the work” (Met).

    In conclusion, Henri Bergson posits that intuition and intellect are the two mental faculties responsible for conceiving and expressing works of art. I have argued that art more fully conceived through intuition is more likely to be authentic and thus a more effective means of providing human accompaniment. Conversely, artworks that rely more heavily on intellect may foster outward solidarity but often lack the innocent authenticity crucial for genuine human connection. As illustrated in the figure 2 and figure 3. Through an exploration of the architectural sculptures of the Ara Pacis Augustae and Louise Nevelson’s wood sculpture Mrs. M’s Palace, I have sought to define the spectrum of artistic creation: from intellect-driven art that cultivates solidarity, to intuition-born art that is more likely to engender authentic and potent experiences of accompaniment.

    Figure 1

    Figure 2

    Figure 3

    Works Cited

    Bergson, Henri. “from Creative Evolution” Art in Theory 1900-2000, second ed., Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA, 2003, pp. 141-144.

    Croce, Bendetto. “What Is Art?” Art in Theory 1900-2000, second ed., Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA, 2003, pp. 138-141.

    Lenin Ilyich, Valdimir. “Party Organization and Party Literature” Art in Theory 1900-2000, second ed., Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA, 2003, pp. 138-141.

    The Met. “Nevelson in Process, 1977 | From the Vaults.” YouTube, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 27 Mar. 2020, www.youtube.com/watch?v=nnfEmNRzoCs.

    Solaini, Margherita. “Louise Nevelson’s Pioneering Spirit.” Phillips, www.phillips.com/article/143008269/louise-nevelsons-pioneering-spirit-exhibition-milan. Accessed 31 May 2025.

    ArcheoRoma  “Ara Pacis Augustea – The Altar of Peace.” www.archeoroma.org. Accessed 31 May 2025.

  • Abstraction and Singularity: Hegemonic Disruption in Video Games

    Abstraction and Singularity: Hegemonic Disruption in Video Games

    This paper explores the role of abstraction in fostering unique, singularizing experiences while engaging with both plastic and digital art. I will begin by defining hegemonic phantasms and examine how first-century Roman art and thirteenth-century Gothic art played a role in the institution and destitution of the Latin Phantasm, according to Reiner Schürmann. Subsequently, I will apply these principles and concepts to pixel art used in contemporary video games. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate how abstract art possesses a greater potential for creating unique, individualized experiences that may foster self-reflection and resistance to hegemonic systems.

    Hegemony can be defined as dominant leadership by one group over others. A phantasm is an illusion or a product of a fantasy. According to Reiner Schürmann, hegemonic phantasms use normative rules and universals as a construct to establish order and meaning in culture or linguistic era.

    For instance, the American Dream serves as a universal, manifesting in particulars like homeownership or securing a well-paying job. Singularities themselves are distinct, unrepeatable events or individuals, such as the election of President Obama. Universals tend to simplify reality and can dismiss counter arguments, while maintaining falsehoods that support the dominant group. In terms of the American Dream, a negative universal is meritocracy, the concept that everyone has an equal opportunity for success. This universal ignores obstacles that can limit success to some groups while celebrating the financial success of those born into wealth. Hegemonic phantasms aren’t entirely negative; they often include universals that help people navigate and make sense of the world. For instance, the American Dream may encourage people to develop a good work ethic or a drive for self-improvement. The problem occurs when the overreliance on universals to define reality begins to support oppression. Schürmann argues that we need to strive to measure our being though singulars and recognize that universals tend to inflate the dominant group.

    Reiner Schürmann provides an example of the institution of the Latin hegemonic phantasm of natura in his book Broken Hegemonies (Schürmann, 191). According to Schürmann, Cicero, a first century Roman poet and politician, played a key role in the institution of natura as a hegemonic phantasm (Schürmann, 193). Cicero’s concept of natura was based on the idea that there is a natural order to the world, and this order is used to justify the rule of law and the importance of civic virtue. Schürmann argues that Cicero’s concept of natura was a hegemonic phantasm because it provided a way of understanding the world that was dominant, unquestioned yet was in fact nothing (Schürmann, 8).

    Art can play a significant role in both the institution and destitution of hegemonic phantasms. In the case of Cicero’s institution of natura, we can look to first century Roman Veristic portraiture, defined by highly realistic sculptures that included wrinkles, warts and thinning hair. A clear illustration of this style can be seen in Roman marble portrait of Marcus Nonius Balbus Figure 1. The head of the portrait of Marcus Nonius Balbus is rendered with Roman verism, complete with wrinkles and disapproving frown. The body, on the other hand, is a copy of a 5th century BCE Greek Bronze rendering of Doryphoros by Polykleitos Figure 2. The naturalism of the statue of Balbus leaves little room for interpretation. The wrinkles and aged facial features are intentionally encoded signaling to the audience that this man has dedicated his long life to civic duties. The downward gaze along with the frown communicates authoritarian disapproval creating a space between the sculpture and the viewer that leaves the viewer feeling belittled, yet grateful to this wise benefactor. Beyond the wisdom and superior status, the sculpture includes a mathematically perfect figure modeled after the Greek bronze statue of Doryphoros that presents a man who is more than mortal, to be envied for his virility and god-like power. These conflicting images reveal the inconsistent message of Cicero’s natura. The Greek body reflects the perfect harmony and power of nature that is mismatched with the veristic head that reinforces Roman civic authority. The laws of nature have little in common with Roman civic virtue, just as Balbas’s veritive head has little to do with the Doryphoros idealized body.

    Figure 1. Marcus Nonius Balbus c. 27 BCE-14 CE (arms and legs modern). Naples National Archaeological Museum
    Figure 2. Doryphoros of Polykleitos. c. 5th century BCE. Naples National Archaeological Museum

    Cicero’s concept of natura lasted many centuries, until Meister Eckhart, a 13th century Dominican monk, introduced the concept of natura non naturata (non-natured nature) creating a diremption or fracture against the Latin hegemonic phantasm of natura. Eckhart’s concept challenged the traditional view that God must follow his own rules, therefor making the law of nature unrefutably. Eckhart posited that God is separate from and transcendent over nature, and not beholden to nature’s laws. Schürmann argues that Eckhart’s concept was a significant challenge to the hegemonic phantasm of natura by presenting nature and God, not as a hierarchy of rules, but rather as a dynamic and creative force of becoming. This concept creates a diremption in Cicero’s hierarchical law-abiding phantasm. Eckhart’s theology does not focus on outward rules, rather it was focused on interior change that begins with detachment from the physical world allowing individuals to grow in virtue internally (Schürmann, 286). This concept is difficult for a hegemony to manipulate, since it is inherently singular, focusing on the individual’s interior experience with the divine. 

    This interiority is a formless experience that cannot be easily rendered in plastic art. Naturalistic art can reflect the outside world very well, but it isn’t suitable for rendering abstract concepts that occur within an individual’s interior mind. Abstraction in art provides room for individual interpretations. The Röttgen Pietà, Figure 3, is a painted wood sculpture that illustrates medieval abstraction. This painted wood sculpture represents Mary, the mother of Jesus, holding her dead son’s body after he was removed from the cross. Both Jesus and Mary are intentionally rendered with unreal, exaggerated proportions. The abstracted figures allow the viewer to focus on the event, not the people represented. Mary appears genderless, allowing the viewer to see any suffering person in her image. In comparison, the naturalism used in Michelangelo’s Pietà Figure 4, presents two specific people, Mary and Jesus, whose likenesses leave little room for interpretation. One might argue that Michelangelo’s Pietà is a far superior work of design and craftsmanship. The question isn’t whether one sculpture is superior to the other, rather, how each sculpture successfully executes their intended purpose for a specific time and culture. I argue that the abstracted forms of the Röttgen Pietà encourage the viewer to use their imagination to explore the intangible concepts of death and suffering while eliciting empathy from the viewer. By simplifying some features, each figure becomes a less specific person, therefore, encouraging the viewer to bridge the subject-object divide. In other words, the viewer doesn’t simply contemplate the work of art; instead, they may project themselves into it.

    Figure 3. Röttgen Pietà, c. 1300–25, painted wood, 34 1/2″ high. 2025. Smarthistory.org, Photograph courtesy of Heinz, Ralf. The Rheinisches Landesmuseum Bonn, https://smarthistory.org/roettgen-pieta/.
    Figure 4. Buonarroti of Florence, Michelangelo. Pietà [Our Lady of] Pity 1498–1499. Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni 174 cm × 195 cm. Saint Peters Basilica Info, Saint Peter’s Basilica, Vatican City,

    Can these arguments be applied to contemporary video games? Undertale and Red Dead Redemption II are two popular video games of similar genres that I will argue, present radically different experiences determined by the use of abstraction vs naturalism.

    Red Dead Redemption II is a video game created in 2015 by Rockstar Games that places players in the world of late 19th century American wild west. Playing as Arthur Morgan, a rugged white male outlaw who faces a dying Wild West with other members of the Van der Linde gang. Players enter a three-dimensional photorealistic world to navigate threats, explore landscapes, and make moral choices about loyalty and survival. The realism in Red Dead Redemption II is striking, once a player adapts to the uncanny resemblance to the nature world, the player experience becomes immersive. Snow moves and creates footprints while horses gallop with the grace and rhythm (see Figure 5). Beyond the visual naturalism, Red Dead Redemption II is what is known as an open world game, meaning the player can walk around and interact with the landscape as they please.

    The naturalistic visuals, like the statue of Balbus, leave little room for interpretation. Due to the use of naturalism, players are less likely to question the validity of the experience and are more likely to believe this interactive story is a trustworthy representation of history. Although the game attempts to portray a diverse array of perspectives about the American wild west, it may also perpetuate common myths such as rugged individualism, glossing over the violence and injustices inflicted on marginalized groups of the time period. The naturalistic imagery becomes synonymous with the natural world, encouraging viewers to grant equal validity to the story and dialogue, thus establishing a portrayal of the American Wild West as nearly true and universal. Universals, according to Schürmann, attempt to subsume singularities under generalized categories. The realistic rendering of the Wild West is arguably creating generalized categories that can subsume singularities and inturn support hegemonic systems.

    Figure 5. Aurthur Morgan from Red Dead Redemption II. 2025. Reddead Fandom, Rockstar Games, https://reddead.fandom.com.

    Undertale is a role-playing video game, developed by Toby Fox and released in 2015 (Hiscott, 2016). The game is set in the Underground, a realm of monsters that was sealed off from the surface world by a magic barrier. The player controls a human child named Frisk who has fallen into the Underground and must find their way back to the surface. Along the way, the child encounters a variety of both friendly and hostile monsters and must choose to fight or befriend them, significantly impacting the game’s outcome. 

    The design of the main character Frisk is noticeably different from many video games (Figure 6.). Frisk is gender neutral, of no fixed racial identity. Their hair is unkempt and their body is the opposite of athletic. Frisk’s abstraction and plurality allow for a wide range of players to identify with them. Beyond the physical appearance, Frisk is composed of large-scale pixels with no depth or detail, abstracting the character even further. Frisk is not heroic, athletic or mighty, therefore players immediately are presented with the realization that they are ill equipped to fight the oncoming monsters. 

    Frisk’s rendering is not unlike the thirteenth century Röttgen Pietà. Both Frisk’s character design and theRöttgen Pietà are abstract. They are both genderless, poor and unheroic. Both renderings feature exaggerated characteristics that draw the viewer’s attention to the person’s emotional state rather than specific features, allowing for greater personal identification with the image. Frisk’s figure has poor posture and is simultaneously thin and overweight emphasizing a state of vulnerability. Jesus, as presented in the Röttgen Pietà, is rendered emaciated, displaying gory wounds, and his head, angled unnaturally from the neck, attests to his brutal demise. Since these images are abstracted, they don’t resemble typical humans, yet they are both recognizably human. It is precisely this vagary that leaves room for the viewer to imagine themselves or someone else in place of the abstracted human form. This empathetic experience is unique to the individual, providing the viewer with imaginative agency, consequently, encouraging them to value their own individuality. It is these individualized experiences that combat universals, according to Schürmann.

    Figure 6. Frisk from Undertale. 2015
    Figure 7. Sans the Skeleton and Frisk in the Forest. 2015

    Emmanuel Kant was a 18th century German philosopher who posited that the subject (human mind) perceives an object (the world outside the mind) through mental frameworks that result in a phenomenal experience, that differs from an object’s true, noumenal existence (Jaspers, 38). In other words, we receive stimuli from the outside world through our senses and the mind interprets the sensory information through mental frameworks such as the imagination and understanding, thus creating unique interpretive experiences. Kant goes on to say, when one has a new experience with an object, the mind attempts to understand it by comparing it to previous concepts and categories (Kant, 145).

    If the mind cannot find a sufficient category to place the new object in, it may enter into a state of what Kant calls “free play” between the understanding and the imagination. While naturalistic art can evoke aesthetic pleasure, according to Kant, it may limit the ‘free play’ of the faculties and reinforce existing expectations, thereby restricting one source of human creativity. In other words, when the mind sees something recognizable, it places the image in a category and may not think much more about it. One can suggest that abstract art may encourage a viewer to engage with the artwork without relying on pre-existing categories or concepts, since some of the information is either unrecognizable or unusual. It is in this state of Free Play that the viewer becomes more deeply engaged with the art. This process can lead the viewer to discover something new, resulting in a meaningful and pleasurable experience or what Kant describes as “purposeful without purpose” (Jaspers, 78). The understanding is looking to find a practical use for the object that has no practical function. According to Kant, the purpose is the activation of the faculties of understanding and imagination, leading to the discovery of new meaning. This supports Kant’s argument that abstract art may encourage “Free Play” to a greater degree than naturalistic art.

    The sculpture of Marcus Balbus has a clearer message than the Röttgen Pietà. The veristic Roman portrait is straight-forward and easily recognizable, the viewer is reminded that this particular benevolent benefactor is wise, powerful and superior. The Röttgen Pietà, conversely, is not so easily understood, the sculpture doesn’t easily fit into the viewer’s understanding of the world. Mary and Jesus, while recognizably human, are depicted as unlike any ordinary persons. Their lack of recognizable identity allows the viewer’s understanding and imagination to enter into free play creating a unique singular experience. This is not to say that free play does not occur when one contemplates Michelangelo’s Pietà or the statue of Marcus Balbus, it’s more a question of degree. The experience of the statue of Marcus Balbus is likely to be more universal and less singular due to its recognizable naturalism. Therefore, it can be argued that naturalistic art may be inclined to support hegemonic phantasms due to the universality of the experience. While abstract art may have a greater ability to elicit the viewer’s mind into a state of free play, producing unique and singular experiences. 

    This concept can also be applied to video game art. The hyper-realistic images of Arthur Morgan and the American wild west is recognizable to the viewer, therefor the imagination is less likely to be activated, creating a nearly universal experience between players. Conversely, Frisk in Undertale is abstract, allowing the player’s mind to enter a state Kantian Free Play between the imagination and understanding.

    One of the clearest examples of this is found in the vast array of Frisk fan art. Frisk has been rendered by players around the world in an infinite variety of genders, nationalities and styles, while Author Morgan is consistently rendered as a rugged white male.

    Figure 8. Frisk fan art
    Figure 9, Aurthur Morgan fan art

    In conclusion, this paper argues that abstract art, particularly in the medium of video games, possesses a greater capacity for fostering singularizing experiences that can challenge hegemonic phantasms. Naturalistic art, found in Roman verism and Red Dead Redemption II, tends to reinforce these universals by presenting seemingly objective realities. The naturalism in these forms limits individual interpretation and can inadvertently perpetuate dominant ideologies. Conversely, abstract art, such as the Röttgen Pietà and the pixel art style of the video game Undertale, encourages individualized experiences.By moving away from fixed, naturalistic representations, abstract art prompts viewers and players to engage their imagination and understanding in a state of Kantian Free Play. This active engagement with the art, may foster self-reflection allowing for a wider range of interpretations, potentially disrupting the universalizing effects. Ultimately, engaging with abstract art offers a valuable space for challenging dominant narratives and celebrating the unique experiences of individuals, thus acting as a potential counterforce to the influence of hegemonic phantasms.

    Works Cited

    Blackburn, Simon. The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 2016.

    Cooley, Alison, and M. G. L. Cooley. Pompeii and Herculaneum: A Sourcebook. Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, 2014.

    Fromm, Erich. Escape from Freedom. Avon Books, 1969.

    Hiscott, Rebecca. “‘Undertale’ Creator Toby Fox on the Indie Computer Game That’s Become an Industry Darling.” Medium, Kickstarter Magazine, 11 Mar. 2016, medium.com

    Jaspers, Karl. Kant: From the Great Philosophers, v.1. Harcourt Brace & Co, 1962.

    Kant, Immanuel, and James Creed Meredith. The Critique of Judgement. Part 1, Critique of Aesthetic Judgement. Ale. Mar., 2020.

    Schürmann, Reiner, and Reginald Lilly. Broken Hegemonies by Reiner Schürmann ; Translated by Reginald Lilly. Indiana University Press, 2003.

    Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael Watt Cothren. Art: A Brief History. Pearson, 2016.

    Thompson, Nancy L. Roman Art: A Resource for Educators. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Yale University Press, 2007.

  • The Artist as the Last Man

    The Artist as the Last Man

    Friedrich Nietzsche, a 19th-century German philosopher, witnessed rise of nihilism during the Victorian Era. Nihilism is the rejection of religious and moral traditions along with the belief that life is meaningless. In response, Nietzsche proposed The Overman, a figure who transcends conventional morality and creates new self-affirming values. This ideal represents the pinnacle of human potential, challenging individuals to overcome their limitations and forge their own unique paths (Nietzsche, 124). The Overman represents active acceptance of Nihilism, where individuals confront nihilism by creating their own meaning in a world devoid of inherent purpose. However, Nietzsche also acknowledges that the vast majority of people prefer the conformity and the security of what he called the ‘Last Man’. For Nietzsche, the Last Man represents a passive acceptance of nihilism, embracing a life devoid of meaning where comfort and complacency are paramount.

    In this paper, I will argue, that art can serve as a tool for finding meaning in a seemingly meaningless world. By examining the works of Barnett Newman, Joseph Beuys, Cecilia Vicuña and Andy Warhol within the Nietzschean archetypes of the Overman and the Last Man, I will explore how these artists respond to the nihilism. Barnett Newman, an Abstract Expressionist, seeks spiritual meaning in his art, not as a response to nihilism, rather, he seeks new meaning while reacting against traditional religious values of the past. In this paper I will use Newman to lay the groundwork for understanding the role of art in addressing this existential question.

    Lets first begin by reviewing Friedrich Nietzsche’s archetypes the Overman and the Last man.  Friedrich Nietzsche, a 19th-century German philosopher, witnessed rise of nihilism during the Victorian Era. Nihilism is the rejection of religious and moral traditions along with the belief that life is meaningless.

    In response, Nietzsche proposed The Overman, a figure who transcends conventional morality and creates new self-affirming values. This ideal represents the pinnacle of human potential, challenging individuals to overcome their limitations and forge their own unique paths (Nietzsche, 124). The Overman represents an active acceptance of Nihilism, where individuals confront nihilism by creating their own meaning in a world devoid of inherent purpose. However, Nietzsche also acknowledges that the vast majority of people prefer the conformity and the security of what he called the ‘Last Man’. For Nietzsche, the Last Man represents a passive acceptance of nihilism, embracing a life devoid of meaning where comfort and complacency are paramount.

    Nietzsche begins his book Thus Spoke Zarathustra with the prophet leaves his cave and encounters a crowd anticipating a tightrope walker’s performance (Nietzsche, 124). He takes this opportunity to introduce the crowd to his concept of the Overman, a being who transcends conventional morality and creates their own values. Using the tightrope walker as a metaphor, Zarathustra highlights the delicate balance between chaos and order, between our human desires and self-overcoming (Nietzsche, 128). The crowd, however, is hostile to Zarathustra’s message.  He then warns the crowd of the dangers of the ‘Last Man,’ a figure characterized by conformity, apathy, and nihilism. The crowd responds positively to the concept of the ‘Last Man’ confirming Zarathustra’s fear that the masses are predisposed to nihilism (Nietzsche, 130). Nietzsche’s fears are clarified by the following quote from Thus Spoke Zarathustra: “No shepherd and no herd! Everybody wants the same, everybody is the same…” (Nietzsche, 130). Zarathustra rails against conformity and complacency, exposing them as mere coping mechanisms for the terror of a life devoid of meaning.

    Nietzsche’s concepts of the Overman and the Last Man represent two opposing forces that he believed struggle within humanity. The Overman can be understood through the lens of an active acceptance of nihilism, while the Last Man can be seen as a passive acceptance of nihilism. The Overman embodies the spirit of innovation, creativity, and the pursuit of excellence; while the Last Man represents the dangers of complacency, conformity, and the loss of individual will.

    I will argue, that art can serve as a tool for finding meaning in a seemingly meaningless world. By examining the works of Barnett Newman, Joseph Beuys, Cecilia Vicuña and Andy Warhol within the Nietzschean archetypes of the Overman and the Last Man, I will explore how these artists respond to the nihilism. Barnett Newman, an Abstract Expressionist, seeks spiritual meaning in his art, not as a response to nihilism, rather, he seeks new meaning while reacting against traditional religious values of the past. Here I will use Newman to lay the groundwork for understanding the role of art in addressing this existential question. Joseph Beuys, a German sculpture and performance artist, engages in active acceptance of nihilism, using art as a catalyst for social change. His work exemplifies the Overman’s potential to shape society through creative action. Cecilia Vicuña is a Chilean multi-media artist and activist uses art to explore ideas such as decay, loss, and memory as an active acceptance of nihilism.  In contrast, Andy Warhol embraces a passive acceptance of nihilism that merely reflects the superficiality of modern society. His work can be interpreted as both a criticism and celebration of consumer culture, reflecting Nietzsche’s Last Man. By comparing these artists, I will argue that an active approach to nihilism offers a more potent and socially relevant response to the challenges of the modern world, while a passive acceptance merely illuminates the problems in society without inspiring change.

    I will first analyze an essay by the American abstract expressionist Barnett Newman, to lay the groundwork for the human desire to create meaning in relation to Nietzsche’s Overman. In his essay, The First Man Was an Artist, Newman describes how the earliest forms of art were not merely functional or utilitarian but were expressions of human spirituality and imagination. Newman’s argument is rooted in the idea that humans have an innate desire to express themselves and to create meaning. This desire, he argues, is what drives artistic creation. Newman believes this human need to create is driven by a need to know the unknowable, to make sense of the unexplainable. Newman takes this idea further when he proclaims “…that the job of the artist is not to discover truth, but to fashion it…” (Newman, 575). Here, Newman proclaims that humans create their own truths rather than reveal a single underlying truth.

    Newman’s thesis is synonymous with Nietzsche’s ‘Will to Power,’ the driving force behind The Overman. According to Nietzsche, the will to power is the driving force in all beings, a force of untethered self-overcoming (Nietzsche, 225). Nietzsche sees creativity as a vital aspect of The Overman’s journey. The Overman is inherently creative, not merely a product of their environment but a shaper of it (Nietzsche, 228). Newman would agree that our need to understand and shape our world is always at play in human beings. By embracing the creative impulse and seeking to understand the unknowable, artists can help us reconnect with our deepest selves and rediscover the meaning of human existence.

    Newman’s large-scale abstract paintings, include bold, vertical lines and wide fields of color to evoke a sense of the infinite and the sublime. In this sense, his art can be seen as a search for meaning and transcendence. Newman’s search for meaning is not in response to nihilism, rather, he was reacting against traditional Christian values while seeking new values in Modernism. In Newman’s series “The Stations of the Cross: Lema Sabachthani,” he incorporates his signature “zip”, a vertical strip between wider vertical bands of color. In the case of “Stations,” he diverted from his typical rich, saturated color and chose whites, off whites and blacks to possibly illustrate unadorned suffering. These paintings were not meant to be spiritual in the Christian sense; rather, they are a secular interpretation of what transpired during this biblical event. Newman was trying to find meaning in suffering that ended with the unanswered question, “Lema Sabachthani” Why have you forsaken me? This series of paintings represent a quest for meaning and transcendence, his pure forms inspire viewers to contemplate the infinite and their own existence within it. Newman’s work encourages viewers to recognize their individuality and interconnectedness, embodying Nietzsche’s Overman. By living authentically and courageously, the Overman serves as an inspiration for others to break free from conformity and mediocrity. (Hellstein).

    Figure 1. Barnett Newman. “First Station,” 1958, Magna on canvas. (Collection of Robert and Jane Meyerhoff/National Gallery of Art)
    Figure 1. Barnett Newman. “First Station,” 1958, Magna on canvas. (Collection of Robert and Jane Meyerhoff/National Gallery of Art)

    Newman’s work, however, was not an acceptance of nihilism. As a modernist, he rejected old traditions and sought to create new values in art. Rather than embracing a world devoid of meaning, he aimed to replace old values with new ones.   

    Joseph Beuys, a German avant-garde artist renowned for his sculpture and performance art, embodied a form of active nihilism. His work aimed to inspire social change and harness the power of art to heal and transform society. In his interview with Georg Jappe titled Not Just a Few Are Called, but Everyone, Beuys makes a powerful statement about the democratization of art and the potential for social change through creative expression. He outlines his belief that every human being is an artist and that art should be accessible to all (Beuys, 905). He argues that artists have a responsibility to use their creativity to address pressing social issues and inspire others to participate in shaping the world. Beuys continues this idea by proclaiming that we should all be “co-creators of a social Architecture,” working together as a community to create social change (Beuys, 905). His devotion to inspiring change aligns with Nietzsche’s Overman, whose purpose is to create new values to improve and inspire humanity.

    Joseph Beuys’ project titled 7000 Oaks, illustrates his commitment to creating new values and social change. The project began in 1982 with the placement of 7,000 basalt stones by the Fridericianum (Free-der-eesh-En-NUM) Museum in Kassel, Germany. Over a five-year period, each stone was removed from the museum lawn and paired with a newly planted oak tree throughout the city. Beuys hoped this that 7000 Oaks would inspire similar tree-planting initiatives worldwide (7000 Eichen).

    His vision was realized through numerous projects inspired by 7000 Oaks. Notable projects include: The Oaks of Tovaangar in Los Angeles (Social Forest), the Joseph Beuys Sculpture Park at University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBT), and 100 oak trees at the Tate Modern (Tate).

    Figure 2. Joseph Beuys – 7000 Oaks, 1982, Dennhäuser Straße, Kassel, Germany, planted from 1984, Photo: Reeve, Antonia.
    Figure 3. Joseph Beuys’s 7,000 Oaks was created in Kassel, Germany in 1982, and pictured here in 2021 (Credit: Alamy)

    Cecilia Vicuña is a Chilean artist who includes themes of language, memory, extinction and exile. Her installation Brian Forest Quipu, which was on display at the Tate Modern from October 11, 2022, to April 16, 2023, exemplifies an active acceptance of nihilism. Vicuña’s giant quipu hangs from the three-story ceiling of the Tate Modern, accompanied by video, music and sounds of nature. Brian Forest Quipu celebrates the 5,000-year-old tradition of storing information in knots of fiber, a practice lost to time and the ravages of colonization. While traditional quipus might be as large as a sweater or blanket, Vicuña’s quipu is 27 meters tall, towering above viewers and suggesting its origins are from giants. The vast scale of the quipu, combined with their connection to the distant past, provides a sublime and transcendent experience. The materials used to create the quipu were collected by from the Thames river by local Latin American Woman, to illustrate human destruction of the environment and the displacement of native peoples. The faded, pale fibers hang with both strength and fragility, indicating a once strong past now facing a fragile and tenuous future.

    Unlike Nietzsche’s Overman, she finds strength in celebrating and acknowledging past traditions and cultures. Nietzsche viewed past traditions with skepticism, warning that they could hinder individualism and self-overcoming. However, he did argue that past traditions could have some value, but they should be questioned and redefined (Nietzsche, 309). Vicuña’s Brian Forest Quipu exemplifies this approach. Vicuña does not ask her audience to return to old ways; rather, she encourages consideration of how the past affects our future. By acknowledging the destruction of indigenous cultures by colonizers and our destruction of the environment, she creates space for healing.

    Vicuña’s use of collaboration to illustrate interconnectedness and the resilience of the human spirit offers a profoundly hopeful view of humanity. Vicuña’s work is very much aligned with the active nihilism of The Overman. Brain Forest Quipu confronts the audience with their participation in climate change and colonization; however, her work doesn’t simply reflect these ideas back to the audience; the Quipu’s natural materials, scale, and collaborative creation inspire the audience to engage in social change.

    Figure 4. Hyundai Commission: Cecilia Vicuña: Brain Forest Quipu Installation View at Tate Modern 2022. Right: Photo © Tate Photography (Sonal Bakrania) Left: Photo © LondonArtRoundup 2024

    Nietzsche’s Last Man is an archetype that exemplifies a passive acceptance of nihilism, characterized by apathy, indifference, and a focus on the mundane. This figure prioritizes comfort over risk and lacks a higher purpose.

    Andy Warhol’s art, with its focus on consumer culture, mass media, and celebrity, reflects this passive acceptance. Famous works such as the Green Coca-Cola Bottles and the Elizabeth Taylor portraits highlight the superficiality and monotony of modern life. By appropriating and recontextualizing mass-produced media images, Warhol asks the viewer to acknowledge their relationship with media consumption and consumerism and to reflect on its contribution to cultural stagnation. Warhol’s work reflects nihilism back at the audience, but he doesn’t ask the viewer to change or to take a stand against the nihilism of society; he merely points it out to us.

    After seeing a newspaper cover about a passenger plane crash, Andy Warhol began his Death and Disaster Series in 1962 (Warhol, 749). In an interview for Art News, Andy described his series that featured silkscreen reproductions of newspaper and magazine images of car crashes, electric chairs, and other images related to death. (Warhol, 748). By repeatedly reproducing these gruesome images, Warhol echoes the media’s voyeuristic fascination with death and destruction, inviting viewers to confront their complicity in this morbid spectacle (Warhol, 748). Warhol’s preoccupation with death and destruction reflects a nihilistic worldview. Warhol says it plainly in his interview with Swensen, “But when you see a gruesome picture over and over again, it doesn’t really have any effect.” (Warhol, 748). His repeated depictions of horrific events reflect the public’s regular inundation with these images in the media, leading to our desensitization. By reducing traumatic events to mere commodities, Warhol critiques consumer culture’s glorification of violence. This series ultimately reflects a passive acceptance of nihilism, presenting a world characterized by indifference and apathy.

    Figure 5. “Fallen Body”, Death and Disaster Series 1962–1967 Andy Warhol. Right: Warhol’s silkscreen reproduction of the image. Left: original Photograph by Robert C. Wiles 1947

    In Suicide (Fallen Body), from his Death and Disaster Series, Warhol comments on the media’s sensationalizing of death and tragedy. Based on a photograph of Evelyn McHale’s suicide, the piece confronts viewers with the morbid reality of death. Warhol sourced the image from Life Magazine, created a silkscreen, and repeated the image across a canvas. The repetition and coloring of the image highlight the media’s exploitation and commodification of death. By recontextualizing the image and presenting it in an art gallery, Warhol raises questions about the voyeuristic tendencies of society. The silk-screen process heightens the image’s contrast, reducing the suicide to a stark, black-and-white abstraction, emphasizing the desensitization of death. While this reflection on contemporary society’s desensitization and commodification of death can be an insightful window into the human condition. It offers the audience no more than a mirror reflection of itself.

    Warhol would often use an assembly line approach to his silk screens in an effort to increase the volume of artwork, in turn increasing profits. Warhol supports this point in the following quote, “I think it would be so great if more people took up silk screens so that no one would know whether my picture was mine or somebody else’s.” (Warhol, 747). This idea is counter to the concept of the Overman that celebrates individuality and self-creation. Joseph Beuys’ also included his audience in the creation of 7000 Oaks. Beuys worked with city officials and recruited townspeople to plant the trees. This collaboration brought the community together with the city government to create a healthy environment. Cecilia Vicuña also included her audience in the creation of Brain Forest Quipu. Her purpose was to emphasize human interconnectedness, now and through time. Both Beuys and Vicuña engaged audiences in the creation of their work, fostering social change through their collaborations, in turn embodying the Overman, while Warhol included staff and visitors in the creation of his works to subvert the concept of the individual artist and to increase production, reflecting the Last Man.

    In conclusion, Nietzsche’s concepts of the Overman and the Last Man illustrate the conflict within humanity between an active acceptance of nihilism and a passive acceptance of it. I have explored how Barnett Newman, Joseph Beuys, Cecilia Vicuña and Andy Warhol responded to nihilism through the lens of these archetypes. Barnett Newman set the stage by establishing the fundamental human need to create meaning through art. He searches for new meaning through his creative works, not as a response to nihilism, but as an attempt to find new values to replace old religious traditions. Joseph Beuys takes this search further by actively accepting nihilism. He exemplifies The Overman by using art as a catalyst for social change in works such as 7000 Oaks. Cecilia Vicuña’s Brian Forest Quipu embodies the Overman’s inspiration of others by creating new values, but unlike the Overman, she draws on the past to foster future healing. Andy Warhol’s passive acceptance of nihilism reflects the Last Man’s superficiality and resignation. By examining these works, it becomes evident that the struggle between passive and active nihilism is central to understanding the role of art in addressing modern challenges. While a passive acceptance of nihilism merely highlights and criticizes societal ills, an active approach encourages people to strive towards Nietzsche’s Overman by affirming life, overcoming limitations, and creating new values.

    Works Cited

    Beuys, Joseph. “Joseph Beuys, ‘Not Just a Few Are Called, but Everyone’ 1972.” Art in Theory 1900-2000, second ed., Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA, 2003, pp. 903–906.

    Cosgrove, Ben. “‘The Most Beautiful Suicide’: A Violent Death, an Immortal Photo.” Time, Time, 19 Mar. 2014, time.com/3456028/the-most-beautiful-suicide-a-violent-death-an-immortal-photo/.

    Hellstein, Valerie. “Barnett Newman, the Stations of the Cross: Lema Sabachtani.” MAVCOR, Yale University, mavcor.yale.edu/conversations/object-narratives/
    barnett-newman-stations-cross-lema-sabachtani. Accessed 29 Nov. 2024.

    Newman, Barnett. “Barnett Newman, ‘The First Man Was an Artist’ 1905-1970.” Art in Theory 1900-2000, second ed., Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA, 2003, pp. 574-577.

    Nietzsche, Friedrich, and Walter Kaufmann. The Portable Nietzsche Selected and Translated, with an Introd., Prefaces, and Notes, by Walter Kaufmann. Penguin Classic, 2006.

    Tate. “Ackroyd & Harvey Install 100 Oak Trees Outside Tate Modern – Press Release.” Tate,www.tate.org.uk/press/press-releases/ackroyd-harvey-install-100-oak-trees-outside-tate-modern. Accessed 29 Nov. 2024.

    Warhol, Andy. “Andy Warhol, ‘Interview with Gene Swenson’ 1930-1987.” Art in Theory 1900-2000, second ed., Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA, 2003, pp. 747-749.

    “7000 Eichen by Joseph Beuys | National Galleries of Scotland.” National Galleries Scotland, Sept. 2022, www.nationalgalleries.org/art-and-artists/102723/7000-eichen.

    “Social Forest: Oaks of Tovaangar.” Department of Cultural Affairs, 12 Dec. 1970, culture.lacity.gov/event/social-forest-oaks-of-tovaangar/2024-12-12/.

    “UMBC & the Joseph Beuys Tree Partnership.” Nature Sacred, 23 Dec. 2021, naturesacred.org/sacred_place/joseph-beuys-installations/.